The following appeared in a letter to the editor of a local newspaper.

　　Too much emphasis is placed on the development of reading skills in elementary school. Many students who are discouraged by the lonely activity of reading turn away from schoolwork merely because they are poor readers. But books recorded on audiocassette tape provide an important alternative for students at this crucial stage in their education, one the school board should not reject merely because of the expense involved. After all, many studies attest to the value of allowing students to hear books read aloud; there is even evidence that students whose parents read to them are even more likely to become able readers. Thus, hearing books on tape can only make students more eager to read and to learn. Therefore, the school board should encourage schools to buy books on tape and to use them in elementary education.

　　In this argument, the writer claims that elementary schools place too much emphasis on the development of reading skills; therefore books on audiocassette should be provided as an alternative method of learning. The arguer attempts to substantiate the conclusion by citing studies that show the value of allowing students to hear books read aloud; including evidence that students whose parents read to them are even more likely to become better readers. This argument ultimately fails as it suffers from several critical fallacies.

　　First of all, the writer flatly states, without any supporting evidence whatsoever, that many students are discouraged by the lonely activity of reading, then continues on in the same sentence to state that students turn away from schoolwork solely because they are poor readers. Students often read to themselves or to the other students in a classroom situation - hardly a lonely activity. Additionally, this argument puts the effect before the cause - inviting the circular logic that students stop trying to learn to read because they are poor readers. Following this argument to its logical conclusion, because they are poor readers, they should not try to learn how to improve their reading. This absurd argument is analogous to saying that a new student should never start to learn in the first place, because he or she knows nothing.

　　Secondly, the writer cites as evidence in favor of the use of audiocassettes the idea that students whose parents read to them are even more likely to become proficient readers. It is at best doubtful that this provides proof that listening to someone read a book stimulates a young mind to learn to read better. It is far more likely that the child gains an interest in learning to read from the parents themselves, not the physical act of having something read to them. In this situation, the parent is showing the child his or her ability to read, which the child will naturally want to emulate. Furthermore, it is likely that a parent that spends time reading to a child is likely to be a much more encouraging parent, particularly when it comes to that childs education.

　　Thirdly, the writer fails to convince in his argument that hearing books on audiocassette makes a child more eager to read and to learn. The author cites many studies that show value in allowing students to hear books read aloud - he or she does not state that the studies show whether that value manifests itself as better reading skills or simply better listening skills, which seems more likely than any improvement in reading ability.

　　Finally, the author fails to take into consideration that merely listening to books on audiocassette fails to provide the visual stimulation necessary to develop higher level reading skills. It is more likely that hearing a book on audiocassette would discourage that student from ever reading that particular book on his or her own. Elementary schools are the main developing grounds for a students reading abilities- there is no substitute for actively learning to actually see the writing and comprehend what it is trying to say. Listening skills can be developed through means other than by hearing books on audiocassette. Reading skills are an absolutely irreplaceable and fundamental part of an elementary students education.

　　In conclusion, the writers argument fails to address several weak areas that lead to a rejection of the overall conclusion that the school board should encourage schools to buy books on tape for use in elementary education. To strengthen the argument, direct cause and effect evidence should be set forth that shows better overall learning without any loss in the development of higher level reading skills for students.

　　參考譯文

　　下述文字摘自一封致某地方報紙編輯的信函：

　　在小學里，人們對閱讀技能的培養強調得過分了。許多對孤獨的閱讀活動望而卻步的學生無心專注于學業，僅僅是因為他們閱讀能力薄弱。但是，錄制在盒式錄音磁帶上的書本內容卻可以向學生在其教育中如此關鍵的這一階段提供另外一個重要的選擇方案。對于這一方案，校董事會不能純粹因為所涉及到的費用而予以擯棄。不管怎么說，許多研究均可驗證讓學生聆聽大聲朗誦書本內容這一做法的價值。甚至還不乏這樣的證據，即有些學生，由于其父母將書本內容朗讀給他們聽，就更有可能成為閱讀能力很強的人。因此，在盒式錄音磁帶上聽書本內容只會使學生更迫切地去閱讀和學習。故校董事會應該鼓勵學校去購置磁帶書本，并將其應用于小學教學之中。

　　在本段論述中，作者宣稱小學過分強調對學生閱讀能力的培養;因此，錄制在盒式錄音磁帶上的書本內容應提供給學生，作為又一種可選擇的學習方法。論述者通過援引某些研究，力圖來證明自己的結論，所援引的研究表明，讓學生聆聽書本內容被大聲朗讀這一做法不無價值。論述者還提供了這樣的證據，即有些學生，由于其父母親將書本內容朗讀給他們聽，就較有可能成為閱讀能力很強的人。該論點由于存在著某些嚴重的邏輯謬誤而最終無法站得住腳。 首先，作者言之鑿鑿地、且在毫無任何佐證性證據的情況下陳述道，許多學生對孤獨的閱讀行為望而卻步，接著在同一個句子中繼續陳述道，學生會僅僅因為閱讀能力差而無心投入到學業之中。學生常常會在課堂氛圍中自己默讀或者朗讀給其他學生聽，這就很難將閱讀說成是一種孤獨的活動。此外，該論點將因果倒置訴諸于循環論證式邏輯推理 學生們因為閱讀技能差而不愿努力去學習閱讀。按此論據得出的邏輯結論便是：因為他們閱讀能力差，他們就不必作任何努力去學習如何來提高其閱讀能力。這一荒謬的論述仿佛就像是在說，一個新生永遠沒有必要開始學習任何東西，因為這位新生一無所知。

　　其次，作者援引了某一理念作為證據，用來為盒式錄音磁帶的使用進行辯護，這一理念便是，當一個學生有父母對他進行朗讀時，他便更有可能成為一個精于閱讀的人。如果將這視為證據，說明聽他人朗讀一本書便能刺激一顆年幼的心靈去學習如何具有更強的閱讀能力，這充其量也是十分令人懷疑的。更有可能的是，孩子從父母身上所獲得的是一種去學習閱讀的興趣，而非由他人對他們進行朗讀這一具體行為本身。在此情形中，父母所做的是向孩子表明他或她的閱讀能力，孩子自然愿意模仿這一能力。再者，一位花時間來給孩子進行朗讀的父親或母親更有可能是一個教子有方的人，尤其是在涉及到孩子教育這一方面。

　　第三，作者在其論述中沒能讓我們相信在盒式錄音磁帶上聽書能使孩子更加渴望去閱讀和學習。作者援引了多項研究，以期證明讓學生聽人大聲朗讀書本這一做法的價值。但這位作者并沒能說清楚，這些研究所表明的價值是否呈現為更強的閱讀技能，或者只是呈現為更強的聽力技能，而這一技能似乎比任何閱讀能力方面的提高來得更有可能。

　　最后需要指出的是，作者沒有考慮到這樣一個因素，即純粹在盒式錄音帶上聽書是無法提供培養較高層次閱讀技能所必需的視覺刺激的。情況更有可能是，在盒式錄音帶上聽某一本書會打消該學生自己去閱讀那本特定的書的積極性。小學教育是發展孩子閱讀能力的主要階段，沒有任何東西可以來替代積極的學習行為，親眼去看所寫的內容并去理解字里行間所要表達的內容。要發展聽力技能，并不必定需要借助在盒式錄音帶上聽書這一手段。閱讀技能是小學生教育中絕對無可替代的和最基本的部分。

　　歸納而言，作者的論述沒有能解決某些薄弱之處，正是這些沒能糾正的薄弱之處，使學校董事會應該鼓勵學校去購買磁帶書本用于小學教育這一總體結論無法得以成立。若要使其論據更具充分說服力，必須擺出直接的因果證據來證明，學生在發展較高層次的閱讀技能方面在沒有蒙受任何損失的情況下，總體學習效果得到了提高。

　　The following appeared in a letter to the editor of a local newspaper.

　　Too much emphasis is placed on the development of reading skills in elementary school. Many students who are discouraged by the lonely activity of reading turn away from schoolwork merely because they are poor readers. But books recorded on audiocassette tape provide an important alternative for students at this crucial stage in their education, one the school board should not reject merely because of the expense involved. After all, many studies attest to the value of allowing students to hear books read aloud; there is even evidence that students whose parents read to them are even more likely to become able readers. Thus, hearing books on tape can only make students more eager to read and to learn. Therefore, the school board should encourage schools to buy books on tape and to use them in elementary education.

　　In this argument, the writer claims that elementary schools place too much emphasis on the development of reading skills; therefore books on audiocassette should be provided as an alternative method of learning. The arguer attempts to substantiate the conclusion by citing studies that show the value of allowing students to hear books read aloud; including evidence that students whose parents read to them are even more likely to become better readers. This argument ultimately fails as it suffers from several critical fallacies.

　　First of all, the writer flatly states, without any supporting evidence whatsoever, that many students are discouraged by the lonely activity of reading, then continues on in the same sentence to state that students turn away from schoolwork solely because they are poor readers. Students often read to themselves or to the other students in a classroom situation - hardly a lonely activity. Additionally, this argument puts the effect before the cause - inviting the circular logic that students stop trying to learn to read because they are poor readers. Following this argument to its logical conclusion, because they are poor readers, they should not try to learn how to improve their reading. This absurd argument is analogous to saying that a new student should never start to learn in the first place, because he or she knows nothing.

　　Secondly, the writer cites as evidence in favor of the use of audiocassettes the idea that students whose parents read to them are even more likely to become proficient readers. It is at best doubtful that this provides proof that listening to someone read a book stimulates a young mind to learn to read better. It is far more likely that the child gains an interest in learning to read from the parents themselves, not the physical act of having something read to them. In this situation, the parent is showing the child his or her ability to read, which the child will naturally want to emulate. Furthermore, it is likely that a parent that spends time reading to a child is likely to be a much more encouraging parent, particularly when it comes to that childs education.

　　Thirdly, the writer fails to convince in his argument that hearing books on audiocassette makes a child more eager to read and to learn. The author cites many studies that show value in allowing students to hear books read aloud - he or she does not state that the studies show whether that value manifests itself as better reading skills or simply better listening skills, which seems more likely than any improvement in reading ability.

　　Finally, the author fails to take into consideration that merely listening to books on audiocassette fails to provide the visual stimulation necessary to develop higher level reading skills. It is more likely that hearing a book on audiocassette would discourage that student from ever reading that particular book on his or her own. Elementary schools are the main developing grounds for a students reading abilities- there is no substitute for actively learning to actually see the writing and comprehend what it is trying to say. Listening skills can be developed through means other than by hearing books on audiocassette. Reading skills are an absolutely irreplaceable and fundamental part of an elementary students education.

　　In conclusion, the writers argument fails to address several weak areas that lead to a rejection of the overall conclusion that the school board should encourage schools to buy books on tape for use in elementary education. To strengthen the argument, direct cause and effect evidence should be set forth that shows better overall learning without any loss in the development of higher level reading skills for students.

　　參考譯文

　　下述文字摘自一封致某地方報紙編輯的信函：

　　在小學里，人們對閱讀技能的培養強調得過分了。許多對孤獨的閱讀活動望而卻步的學生無心專注于學業，僅僅是因為他們閱讀能力薄弱。但是，錄制在盒式錄音磁帶上的書本內容卻可以向學生在其教育中如此關鍵的這一階段提供另外一個重要的選擇方案。對于這一方案，校董事會不能純粹因為所涉及到的費用而予以擯棄。不管怎么說，許多研究均可驗證讓學生聆聽大聲朗誦書本內容這一做法的價值。甚至還不乏這樣的證據，即有些學生，由于其父母將書本內容朗讀給他們聽，就更有可能成為閱讀能力很強的人。因此，在盒式錄音磁帶上聽書本內容只會使學生更迫切地去閱讀和學習。故校董事會應該鼓勵學校去購置磁帶書本，并將其應用于小學教學之中。

　　在本段論述中，作者宣稱小學過分強調對學生閱讀能力的培養;因此，錄制在盒式錄音磁帶上的書本內容應提供給學生，作為又一種可選擇的學習方法。論述者通過援引某些研究，力圖來證明自己的結論，所援引的研究表明，讓學生聆聽書本內容被大聲朗讀這一做法不無價值。論述者還提供了這樣的證據，即有些學生，由于其父母親將書本內容朗讀給他們聽，就較有可能成為閱讀能力很強的人。該論點由于存在著某些嚴重的邏輯謬誤而最終無法站得住腳。 首先，作者言之鑿鑿地、且在毫無任何佐證性證據的情況下陳述道，許多學生對孤獨的閱讀行為望而卻步，接著在同一個句子中繼續陳述道，學生會僅僅因為閱讀能力差而無心投入到學業之中。學生常常會在課堂氛圍中自己默讀或者朗讀給其他學生聽，這就很難將閱讀說成是一種孤獨的活動。此外，該論點將因果倒置訴諸于循環論證式邏輯推理 學生們因為閱讀技能差而不愿努力去學習閱讀。按此論據得出的邏輯結論便是：因為他們閱讀能力差，他們就不必作任何努力去學習如何來提高其閱讀能力。這一荒謬的論述仿佛就像是在說，一個新生永遠沒有必要開始學習任何東西，因為這位新生一無所知。

　　其次，作者援引了某一理念作為證據，用來為盒式錄音磁帶的使用進行辯護，這一理念便是，當一個學生有父母對他進行朗讀時，他便更有可能成為一個精于閱讀的人。如果將這視為證據，說明聽他人朗讀一本書便能刺激一顆年幼的心靈去學習如何具有更強的閱讀能力，這充其量也是十分令人懷疑的。更有可能的是，孩子從父母身上所獲得的是一種去學習閱讀的興趣，而非由他人對他們進行朗讀這一具體行為本身。在此情形中，父母所做的是向孩子表明他或她的閱讀能力，孩子自然愿意模仿這一能力。再者，一位花時間來給孩子進行朗讀的父親或母親更有可能是一個教子有方的人，尤其是在涉及到孩子教育這一方面。

　　第三，作者在其論述中沒能讓我們相信在盒式錄音磁帶上聽書能使孩子更加渴望去閱讀和學習。作者援引了多項研究，以期證明讓學生聽人大聲朗讀書本這一做法的價值。但這位作者并沒能說清楚，這些研究所表明的價值是否呈現為更強的閱讀技能，或者只是呈現為更強的聽力技能，而這一技能似乎比任何閱讀能力方面的提高來得更有可能。

　　最后需要指出的是，作者沒有考慮到這樣一個因素，即純粹在盒式錄音帶上聽書是無法提供培養較高層次閱讀技能所必需的視覺刺激的。情況更有可能是，在盒式錄音帶上聽某一本書會打消該學生自己去閱讀那本特定的書的積極性。小學教育是發展孩子閱讀能力的主要階段，沒有任何東西可以來替代積極的學習行為，親眼去看所寫的內容并去理解字里行間所要表達的內容。要發展聽力技能，并不必定需要借助在盒式錄音帶上聽書這一手段。閱讀技能是小學生教育中絕對無可替代的和最基本的部分。

　　歸納而言，作者的論述沒有能解決某些薄弱之處，正是這些沒能糾正的薄弱之處，使學校董事會應該鼓勵學校去購買磁帶書本用于小學教育這一總體結論無法得以成立。若要使其論據更具充分說服力，必須擺出直接的因果證據來證明，學生在發展較高層次的閱讀技能方面在沒有蒙受任何損失的情況下，總體學習效果得到了提高。